英文本 学术英语写作 上

UNIT 1 Academic Writing Style

Learning Objectives

· To understand the style and features of academic discourse;

· To distinguish between the academic style and the personal style of writing;

· To recognize various levels of formality;

· To use appropriate words and sentences in academic writing.

Warm-up

As a graduate student, you will face a lot of writing tasks as you work toward the chosen degree. Naturally, these tasks vary from one discipline to another. They are, however, similar in one respect—they all need to be completed “academically”. What is the academic style?This is a question that students frequently ask. The English language used in writing academic papers differs from that in common writing in many aspects.

To know more about academic writing, think about the following questions first:

· How is academic writing different from other forms of writing?

· What is your purpose of initiating an academic research?

· What are the key characteristics of academic writing?

Ⅱ Sample Reading

What Are the Key Characteristics of Academic Writing?

Compare and contrast the following two pieces of writing.

The first example is an e-mail written by a student, and the second is an essay extract on the same topic.

■ Dear Professor,

Please find below my answers to your questions.

I think academic English and everyday English are different because they have very different goals. Lectures and seminars need a different approach from spoken English. And, of course, academic essay writing isn't the same as standard writing.

I think there are four main areas where I can see big dif f erences between standard writing and academic writing. They are as follows:

· You should not be subjective;

· You should be more complex;

· You should have more structures;

· You should use the academic style and system.

Best wishes,

Sophia

■ “Academic English” is differentiated from “general English” in its focus on “those communication skills in English which are required for study purposes in formal education systems” (Jordan, 1997: 1). Within these systems, there are three main areas of focus: the lecture, the seminar and the essay, each of which has a specific set of subskills which are required for successful performance. It is essays where the most signif i cant distinction between academic English and general English is made. Generally speaking, there are four main areas where differences between standard writing and academic writing can be observed: the inherent objectivity of academic writing, its complexity, its formality of structure and its adoption of academic style.

It is almost impossible to define good academic writing exactly. However, it is certainly possible to identify some key characteristics. The ones listed below are four of the most important features.

Academic writing:

· is more objective;

· is more complex;

· has a more formal structure;

· uses more referencing.

Academic Writing Is More Objective.

Phrases such as “I think” “I believe” and “in my opinion” should not be used in academic writing. Academics are not looking for what you think or believe—they want to see what you can show, demonstrate and prove through evidence. For example:

■ Standard writing: I think there are four main areas where I can see big differences between standard writing and academic writing.

■ Academic writing: Generally speaking, there are four main areas where differences between standard writing and academic writing can be observed.

Three specific strategies for achieving objectivity are outlined below:

· Strategy 1: Hedging language increases the “distance” between the writer and the text, thereby creating more objectivity.

· Strategy 2: Empty introductory phrases provide a platform for objective statements.

· Strategy 3: The passive voice removes the need for a subject in the sentence.

Academic Writing Is More Complex.

As a general principle, academic writing is more complex than other forms of writing. This is because academic writing often discusses difficult, challenging ideas which can only be expressed with particular grammar and language. This complexity may be seen in the following three aspects.

Formality of Language

Academic language is more formal than the language used in other forms of writing. For example:

■ Standard writing: big dif f erences

■ Academic writing: the most signif i cant distinction

Grammatical Structures

Some grammatical forms appear more frequently in academic writing than in other forms of writing, like the passive voice, noun phrases and relative clauses. For example:

■ Academic writing: a specif i c set of subskills which are required for successful performance

Density of Language

In the two writing samples on Pages 2–3, the average number of letters per word of the e-mail is 4.8, whereas it is 5.4 for the sample of academic writing. This density can be achieved through a greater use of content words (such as verbs and nouns) rather than structure words (such as prepositions and conjunctions). In the example below, the adjective form found in general writing is substituted with a verb form in academic writing.

■ Standard writing: Academic English and everyday English are dif f erent...

■ Academic writing: “Academic English” is dif f erentiated from “general English”...

Academic Writing Has a More Formal Structure.

All forms of writing have a certain type of structure. The structure of academic writing is more formal than that of other forms of writing. The following characteristics can be observed:

· The text as a whole has a specific, formalized structure—the introduction, main body and conclusion.

· The text must have cohesion and coherence—it must link together clearly so that it is possible to follow the writer's argument.

· Paragraphs should be roughly of the same length throughout, so there is a good overall balance.

· Paragraphs often follow a similar structure—topic sentence, outline of argument,supporting evidence, short conclusion and transition to the next paragraph.

Academic Writing Uses More Referencing.

Building on the ideas of other people is one of the central features of academic writing. In order to show where these ideas come from (and to avoid plagiarism), a reference system is used. For example:

■ Standard writing: I think academic English and everyday English are dif f erent because they have very dif f erent goals.

■ Academic writing: “Academic English” is differentiated from “general English” in its focus on “those communication skills in English which are required for study purposes in formal education systems” (Jordan, 1971:1).

(Adapted from C. Sowton. 2012. 50 Steps to Improving Your Academic Writing. Reading:Garnet Publishing.)

Ⅲ Language Focus

A. Word Choice

The English language often has two or more choices to express an action or occurrence. The choice is often between a phrasal verb and a single verb. Often in lectures and other instances of everyday spoken English, the phrasal verb is used; however, for written academic English, the preferred choice is a single verb wherever possible. This is one of the most dramatic shifts from informal style to formal style. Academic voice can be well expressed by choosing words. A distinctive feature of academic writing is choosing the more formal ones when selecting a verb, a noun, or other parts of speech. For example:

■ Less formal style: Researchers looked at the way strain builds up around a fault.

■ Academic style: Researchers observed the way strain accumulates around a fault.

B. Formal Grammar and Style

Sentence structures in academic writing are more complex than in other forms of writing in that academic writing often discusses difficult, challenging ideas which can only be expressed with particular grammar and language. But do not mistake “complex” for“complicated”. Academic writing should not be complicated. It should be relatively easy to follow, and be written in a clear, direct way.

The following are some recommendations for maintaining a formal academic writing style.

First, avoid contractions. For example:

■ Export f i gures won't improve until the economy is stronger. (×)

■ Export f i gures will not improve until the economy is stronger. (√)

Second, use the more appropriate formal negative forms. For example:

■ The analysis didn't yield any new results. (×)

■The analysis yielded no new results. (√)

■The government didn't allocate much funding for the program. (×)

■The government allocated little funding for the program. (√)

■This problem doesn't have many viable solutions. (×)

■ This problem has few viable solutions. (√)

Third, limit the use of “run on” expressions, such as “and so forth” and “etc.”. For example:

■ These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, etc. (×)

■ These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, and other electronic devices. (√)

Fourth, avoid addressing the reader as “you”. For example:

■ You can see the results in Table 1. (×)

■ The results can be seen in Table 1. (√)

Last but not least, limit the use of direct questions. For example:

■ What can be done to lower costs? (×)

■ We now need to consider what can be done to lower costs./We now need to consider how costs may be lowered. (√)

C. Linking Words and Flow

Sentences that are too short and poorly connected can be irritating to read. Linking words and phrases can help a writer maintain flow and establish clear relationships between ideas.

Ⅳ Academic Writing Skills

A. Recognizing Different Styles

Different styles of writing have different features. Styles may be formal or informal, and will usually vary to fit the audience and the medium of publication. Moreover, the style will also affect how you read and interpret the document concerned. Understanding the writing style will help you put your writing into perspective.

B. Choosing Appropriate Styles

Academic texts are usually precise, reliable, formal, and structured because the writers always want to ensure that their work is clearly understood, and there is no room for ambiguity. They also want to justify their point of view. So they support their writing with evidence, either from their own work, or that of others.

UNIT 2 Research Proposal

Learning Objectives

· To understand the importance and major components of a research proposal;

· To become aware of the use of personal pronouns and nominalization in academic writing;

· To initiate your own research;

· To learn to write a research proposal.

 Warm-up